Objective  Establishing an effective method for zoning and management of protected areas (PAs) that conforms to international advanced protection principles based on the human-nature relationship and actual situation of PAs in China is an important issue for upgrading and optimizing PAs. Carrying out refined zoning and management of PAs is the foundation for achieving precise and adaptive management of national parks and PAs in the new stage. However, current zoning methods still fail to fully understand the behavioral needs of protected objects, and the relevance, dynamics and adaptability of human-wildlife interactions.

Methods  Based on modern ecosystem management theory, this research adopts the MaxEnt species distribution model and various spatial analysis model methods to systematically analyze the behavior and protection needs of protected wildlife, as well as their spatial interactions with local communities, and proposes a behavior-based approach for refined zoning and management (BAZM) of national parks and PAs. This approach consists of five main steps: 1) Determine protection targets and objects, as well as ecological units; 2) analyze spatial demands of protection targets, local residents and visitors according to their behaviors; 3) assess interactive effects between species habitats and human activity spaces; 4) define the zoning model and delineate refined functional zones; 5) formulate itemized control measures and implement adaptive management.

Results  To better understand the BAZM approach, the research takes the Dashaobao Black-Necked Crane National Nature Reserve as an example, which is established to protect the black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis), a flagship species. According to the behavior and habitat demands of the protection object the research identifies two most important habitats of black-necked crane, namely the roosting habitats and foraging habitats. The roosting sites of black-necked cranes and their protection buffers are identified through field trips and the minimum approaching distance (MAD) method. A total of four roosting sites with 400 m buffer distance are identified. Additionally, the research adopts the MaxEnt model to identify the foraging sites of black-necked cranes, finding high foraging suitability in core zones around crane roosting sites and village patches, indicating positive association with villages that provide food resources. The conflict space between crane protection and human utilization (89.7 km²) account for 46.7% of the total reserve area; the protection and utilization opportunity space accounts for 34.7%, with similar proportions of protection opportunity space (17.4%) and utilization space (17.3%). It is identified that the 400 m buffer zones for the roosting sites of black-necked cranes determined by the MAD method and the important wetland restoration areas are designated as core protection areas, and that 45% of the protected area is a habitat maintenance area designed to ensure the safety of food sources in the main foraging area of black-necked cranes and maintain the human-crane coexistence system. The habitat maintenance area is designated as a general control area together with cultural experience area, scenic display area, traditional production area, and comprehensive service area; in addition, a peripheral coordination area is proposed to coordinate the regional wintering and migration safety of black-necked cranes; finally, A “3+N” refined zoning of core protection area, general control area and peripheral coordination area is proposed, with itemized control measures formulated for each functional area based on natural/cultural resources, visitor experience, and encouraging/discouraging community behaviors. Moreover, by collecting and monitoring feedback from key indicators of this PAs system, adaptive plans can be proposed and adjusted, enabling adaptive management of the entire process through feedback and corrections.

Conclusion  The BAZM approach demonstrates strong adaptability, scientificity and operability. Its application can promote adaptive planning and management of national parks and provide technical support for refined zoning and precise control of national parks and PAs. The BAZM approach has the following advantages: 1) Fully consider species behaviors, habitat quality and community needs to improve scientificity and accuracy of reserve zoning; 2) avoid over-protection or over-development by balancing ecological, economic and social benefits; 3) dynamically adjust zone boundaries and control measures according to changes in species behaviors, community needs and external environment to improve the flexibility and effectiveness of management. Meanwhile, the BAZM approach also faces some limitations and challenges, such as requiring substantial accurate and reliable data support, and involving multiple disciplines, fields and stakeholders.