Objective  In the research on Chinese landscape and architecture, the concept of Fengtu (风土) is fundamental. While Fengtu is often translated as either “terroir” or “vernacular”, researchers typically emphasize its rural, indigenous, and local aspects. However, in the Chinese tradition, Fengtu is not only a spontaneous creation of the vernacular or folk society, but rather represents the manifestation of political ideals on the earth. This kind of landscape requires interdisciplinary research and return to the Chinese traditional civilization. The aim of this research is to explore the interplay between the Yongding River’s landscape and the political ideals of Tianxia, leveraging it as a case study to provide novel insights into landscape research through the lens of the concept of Fengtu.

Methods Mainly utilizing poetic texts, supplemented by historical documents, this research employs the hermeneutic method of humanities to trace the evolution of the depiction of Yongding River’s waterscape involving flying birds (hereinafter referred to as the “bird waterscape”) from Sui and Tang dynasties to Song and Liao periods, and further to Ming and Qing dynasties. Through close reading and comparison of poetic texts from different eras, the research reveals the intrinsic stable ideological foundation embedded within the transformations.

Results In the ideal world portrayed in The Book of Songs (诗经), the imperial capital is not only the place where humans dwell and thrive but also an abundant land where myriad creatures proliferate. This harmonious coexistence of all things not only expresses the ecological concept of harmonious coexistence between human and nature, but also reflects the perfect governance of the world through the beauty of nature. Among all the scenes, it is the free soaring and nesting birds that notably embody the virtue of the emperor and the spread of civilization. This concept profoundly influences the construction of imperial capitals throughout history, and bird waterscape becomes a symbol for imperial gardens in literary works. During Sui and Tang dynasties, Beijing, located at the intersection of agrarian and nomadic civilizations, remained the frontline of contention among various ethnic groups. In the writings of poets from this period, Beijing was closely associated with hardships, wilderness, warfare, and loneliness. However, after being incorporated into the territory of Liao Dynasty, Beijing, designated as the Nanjing Dao (南京道), transformed into a thriving haven for birds. The relatively stable society allowed the myriad creatures, which had suffered frequent wars, to recuperate. The Khitan people’s fishing and hunting traditions, as well as their bird-worshipping beliefs, led to the meticulous construction and maintenance of the water bodies in Beijing as imperial gardens. With the regular occurrence of royal ceremonies (such as the spring hunting activities conducted by the Liao emperors in Yanfangdian (延芳淀), Beijing was aligned closer and closer with the idealized capital depicted in The Book of Songs. Perhaps it was this waterscape involving flying birds that led to Song Zhenzong’s (宋真宗) uneasiness about the legitimacy of his rule, thus triggering a series of political and cultural events. Hundreds of years later, even during Ming and Qing dynasties, the hidden linkage between the bird waterscape and national destiny continued to influence the way people perceived and depicted the Yongding River: Birds flying over the water banks were seen as proof of the emperor’s benevolent governance and military achievements, while murky water and startled birds were seen as signs of the country’s decline and imminent demise. The birds on the Yongding River have always been a symbol of the political ideal, and a metaphor for the good governance or bad chaos of the world.

Conclusion Through the example of the bird waterscape of the Yongding River, this research argues that Fengtu is not only a sign of ecological environment or objective material existence, nor is it only indigenous or local, created by folk society, but also a carrier of national or even cosmopolitanism dimensions rooted in the universally shared political ideal Tianxia (sharing by all). While the similar concepts, “vernacular” and “terroir”, both imply a folk/elite, local/national dichotomy, Fengtu integrates natural landscapes, folk customs and political order as a whole, offering a holistic vision of civilization that transcends the antagonistic model. In the process of building China's own knowledge system, it is essential to embrace the concept of Fengtu to appreciate the unity and inclusiveness of Chinese civilization, and to understand the relationship between the local indigenous culture and the overarching political ideal of Tianxia. This will also provide Chinese wisdom for the development of the human civilization community.