Objective The mid-16th century is a critical period in the transformation of Jiangnan gardens during the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty. This period is characterized by a gradual weakening of the connection between garden making and agricultural economy, the enhancement of social functions of private gardens, and the infiltration of social atmosphere of entertainment and extravagance into the life of literati. Based on clarifying the overall trend of the transformation of Jiangnan gardens, it is necessary to further explore specific changes in garden elements such as rockeries, waterscape, plants, and buildings by combining them with specific examples. The private garden of Xu Feng, a wealthy merchant from Suzhou, is representative of the newly constructed Jiangnan gardens in the mid-16th century. The scenery of this garden is depicted in Wen Zhengming’s Picture of a Famous Garden in Jinchang (“Jinchangmingyuantu”). This painting vividly reflects many garden design techniques that were popular during the Jiajing period and provides intuitive evidence to support the argument of the transformation of Jiangnan gardens in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty. It also helps to form a clearer understanding of the typical artistic features of Jiangnan gardens in the mid-16th century.

Methods The research method of mutual verification of literature and image is employed to reconstruct the garden depicted in the Picture of a Famous Garden in Jinchang. Combining visual and textual information to identify the correspondence between the painting and the Record of Zizhi Garden (Zizhiyuanji), in order to determine the orientation of buildings and the layout of garden. This process ultimately yields a partial plan of Xu Feng’s Garden, making the visual image of this renowned Jiangnan garden in the mid-16th century more intuitive. Furthermore, by analyzing the garden elements and design techniques based on the plan restoration of Xu Feng’s Garden, and comparing it with other Jiangnan gardens in the mid-16th century and its surrounding periods, the main trends in the transformation of Jiangnan gardens since the Jiajing period can be explored.

Results The Picture of a Famous Garden in Jinchang does not include the panorama of Xu Feng’s Garden, and Wen Zhengming chose to depict the core area of the garden. This painting depicts scenic spots such as the garden gate, Five Old Men Peaks (“Wulaofeng”), teahouse, Wohong Bridge (Wohongqiao), square pool, Dongya Hall (“Dongyatang”), Taiyi Study (“Taiyizhai”), curving stream, Qianxin Railing (“Qianxinjian”), Baixue Tower (“Baixuelou”), and Qingxiang Pavilion (“Qingxiangting”) from right to left. This garden was renowned for its luxurious style and served as a place for celebrities to engage in social activities. The garden elements such as rockeries, waterscape, plants, and buildings exhibit artistic features that are distinct from the traditional literati gardens before the mid-16th century, while also showing continuity with the design techniques from the mid-16th century to the early 17th century. The Five Old Men Peaks, which rose during the Jiajing period, continued to be popular until the late Ming Dynasty. Ornamental plants detached from agricultural economy reflected the changes in the livelihood of garden owners from farming to commerce. Buildings with increasing number and diverse forms were gradually replacing plants as the main scene of gardens. In addition, this painting shows the combination of square pool and curving stream, providing valuable visual documentation for distinguishing the differences in waterscape design during the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty.

Conclusion The comparison of Xu Feng’s Garden with other Jiangnan gardens in the mid-16th century and its surrounding periods reveals the major trends in the transformation of garden making since the Jiajing period. The application of standardized techniques in rockery construction and waterscape design reflects the gradual maturation of garden making after the mid-16th century, indicating that garden designers had gradually established a widely recognized and used design paradigm after long-term exploration. As a representative of the design paradigm at that time, the combination of the Five Old Men Peaks and square pond reveals the convergence of garden designers’ aesthetic concepts within a specific historical period. The functional shift of plants and buildings can be seen as a manifestation of the transformation of social trend from frugality to luxury in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty. In the early 16th century, Jiangnan gardens were primarily used for the daily life and literary gatherings of literati, while also accommodating self-sufficient agricultural production. The development of commodity economy highlighted the social attributes of gardens as venues for social interaction, stimulating garden owners’ attention to the aesthetic functions of their gardens. The transformation of Jiangnan gardens in the mid-16th century originats from the combined effects of social evolution and artistic development. In subsequent research, extending case studies to group surveys can help to macroscopically grasp the characteristics of Jiangnan gardens in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty.